The Smritis and Dharmashastras occupy a crucial place in the vast corpus of Hindu literature, emerging after the Vedas and Upanishads as texts that codified ethical conduct, legal norms, social responsibilities, and spiritual duties. Written between 200 BCE and 200 CE, they served as guiding principles for the organization of society and the moral compass of individuals in ancient and classical Indian civilization.
While the Vedas and Upanishads dealt primarily with spiritual knowledge and metaphysical truths, the Smritis and Dharmashastras focused on practical Dharma — the righteous way of living in the world.
Understanding ‘Smriti’ and ‘Shruti’
In Hindu tradition, scriptures are broadly classified into:
Shruti – That which is “heard” (divine revelations), such as the Vedas and Upanishads.
Smriti – That which is “remembered” (composed by sages based on Vedic principles), including epics, Puranas, and Dharmashastras.
The Smritis are not considered eternal or divine in the same way as the Vedas but are authoritative interpretations of Vedic Dharma suitable for the times in which they were written. They laid down norms for civil conduct, governance, rituals, and jurisprudence.
The Dharmashastras: Foundations of Hindu Law and Ethics
The Dharmashastras are a subset of the Smritis and are among the earliest attempts to codify legal and ethical codes in Indian history. These texts deal with Dharma in its most comprehensive sense — encompassing moral law, religious duties, customs, and civil law.
Major Dharmashastra Texts:
Manusmriti (The Laws of Manu) – c. 200 BCE
Yajnavalkya Smriti – c. 100 CE
Narada Smriti
Parashara Smriti
Vishnu Smriti
Brihaspati Smriti
Katyayana Smriti
Among these, the Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti are the most comprehensive and widely referenced.
Manusmriti – The Laws of Manu
The Manusmriti, attributed to Sage Manu, is the oldest and most influential of the Dharmashastras. It contains 2,685 verses across 12 chapters and covers:
Duties of individuals based on Varna (social order) and Ashrama (life stage)
Family laws – marriage, inheritance, and property rights
Criminal and civil laws – punishments, contracts, evidence
Ritual purity and daily conduct
Governance and kingly duties
It sought to establish a moral and legal code for society, rooted in the concept of Svadharma (one’s own duty) and Rita (cosmic order).
“Dharma is that which sustains the world” – Manusmriti 8.15
Yajnavalkya Smriti – A Refined Legal Text
The Yajnavalkya Smriti is more concise and systematized than Manusmriti, written in a more legalistic and analytical style. It focuses on:
Vyavahara (judicial process)
Acara (customs and practices)
Prayaschitta (penance and atonement)
It became the preferred text for jurists and commentators in medieval India due to its clarity and emphasis on legal reasoning.
It also addressed women’s rights in inheritance (more progressively than earlier texts), property laws, and ethical governance, making it influential in later Hindu legal systems.
Core Principles of the Dharmashastras
- Dharma – The Supreme Guiding Principle
Dharma is defined as the eternal law that governs the physical, moral, and spiritual realms. It includes duties toward self, family, society, and the Divine. Every individual is expected to act in harmony with Dharma.
- Varnashrama Dharma – Duties by Class and Life Stage
Society was divided into four Varnas:
Brahmins – priests and teachers
Kshatriyas – warriors and rulers
Vaishyas – merchants and farmers
Shudras – laborers and service providers
Life was divided into four Ashramas:
Brahmacharya – student life
Grihastha – householder life
Vanaprastha – forest-dwelling, semi-retirement
Sannyasa – renunciation
Each Varna and Ashrama had its corresponding duties, creating a framework for social order and spiritual progression.
- Rules of Conduct and Morality
The Dharmashastras detailed rules for ethical living:
Truthfulness (Satya)
Non-violence (Ahimsa)
Charity (Dana)
Compassion (Karuna)
Respect for elders, teachers, and guests
They emphasized purity of body, speech, and mind as essential for spiritual growth.
- Law and Governance
The texts laid down codes of justice, roles of kings, and duties of officials. A just king was expected to:
Uphold Dharma
Protect citizens
Administer fair justice
Prevent exploitation and corruption
Punishments were proportional to the crime and the societal role of the individual, reflecting both deterrence and moral correction.
- Women and Family Life
While these texts reflected the patriarchal structure of their times, they also recognized the importance of honoring women and upholding family responsibilities. The Yajnavalkya Smriti provided a legal basis for women’s inheritance, especially in the absence of male heirs.
Interpretation, Influence, and Evolution
Over time, the Smritis were commented upon, critiqued, and adapted by numerous scholars and jurists, including:
Medhatithi
Vijnaneshwara (author of the Mitakshara)
Apararka
Jimutavahana (author of Dayabhaga)
These interpretations shaped regional legal traditions across India, especially in inheritance and family law.
Even during British colonial rule, the Anglo-Hindu law system relied heavily on Dharmashastra texts, especially for personal law matters like marriage, adoption, and succession.
Criticism and Modern Re-evaluation
In the modern era, certain aspects of the Dharmashastras — particularly those that institutionalized caste distinctions and gender inequality — have been critically re-evaluated.
Social reformers like Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Mahatma Gandhi, and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar challenged rigid interpretations of these laws and advocated for a return to the more inclusive spirit of the Vedas and Upanishads.
Modern Hindu personal laws have since evolved through legislation (e.g., Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act) while drawing selectively from the Dharmashastra tradition.
Legacy and Contemporary Relevance
Despite their limitations, the Smritis and Dharmashastras continue to influence:
Hindu ethical and moral thought
Indian legal and judicial heritage
Debates around tradition vs. reform in contemporary Hinduism
They represent an early and sophisticated attempt to harmonize spiritual principles with societal governance, making them an invaluable part of India’s intellectual, legal, and cultural heritage.
Conclusion: The Code of Dharma for a Civilized Society
The Smritis and Dharmashastras offered a comprehensive vision of a well-ordered, ethical, and spiritually conscious society, rooted in Dharma as both law and virtue. Though shaped by their historical contexts, their core emphasis on righteous conduct, justice, and responsibility remains relevant today.
Understanding these texts allows us to appreciate how ancient Indian thinkers integrated law, spirituality, and society — striving to create a civilization where individual duties and collective harmony were guided by a higher moral purpose.